Urban Metabolism
It was reported that the concept of ‘urban metabolism’ has existed for decades and views large cities as living entities that consume energy, food, water, and other raw materials, and release wastes. These releases include carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas; air pollutants, sewage and other water pollutants; and even excess heat that collects in vast expanses of concrete pavement and stone buildings. Humans directly produce a significant share of this waste, but emissions from industrial, power generation and transportation systems emit the largest quantities of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants. Other urban metabolisers include sewage systems, landfills, domestic pets and pests like rats, which in some cities outnumber people.
During the last five years, this body of knowledge has drawn into sharper focus the hazards of poor air quality in mega cities, not just on the large local populations but also on population centres, agricultural activities and natural ecosystems located downwind from these sprawling areas. Researchers now acknowledge that carbon dioxide and other pollutants in mega cities make them immense drivers of climate change. They impact climate on both a regional and global level because these long-lived greenhouse gases are dispersed around the world.” More than half the world’s population today lives in cities, and the world’s largest urban areas are growing rapidly. The number of mega cities — metropolitan areas with populations exceeding 10 million — has grown from just three in 1975 to about 20 today.

The Culprits
The most highly polluted mega cities are in developing countries. They include Dhaka, Bangladesh; Cairo, Egypt; and Karachi, Pakistan. Some mega cities in less developed regions have recently mounted air quality management campaigns that have resulted in lower levels of pollution; they include Mexico City, Mexico; Beijing, China; Sao Paulo, Brazil; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Even the cleanest mega cities like Tokyo/Osaka in Japan and New York City and Los Angeles in the United States — all in the developed world — still have serious problems.
The hot weather and frequent atmospheric inversions in southern California, for instance, foster Los Angeles’ legendary smog problem. Mexico City’s high altitude/low latitude location produces high levels of solar ultraviolet radiation that drive photochemical smog production, and the even higher surrounding mountains trap the resulting pollutants in and over the city on most days.
That causes a very serious situation for residents of Mexico City. There are very unhealthy levels of ozone and fine particle pollutants that produce large numbers of premature deaths each year. Studies show that for each increase of 10 micrograms per cubic metre of these particles, you get roughly a 10 percent increase in premature deaths, producing a decrease in average life expectancy of about 0.8 years. Hospital visits, including bronchitis and asthma cases, also rise.

Controlling urban growth key to improving global air quality
Scientists believe that controlling urban growth in the developing world is key to improving the world’s air quality. Urban pollutant levels in poor countries will remain high, with increased emissions expected as the city populations and economic activities increase. Until mega cities are rich enough to devote significant funds to reduce their emissions, two factors will invariably increase the stresses on their environment — increasing vehicular traffic and industrial growth.

California and Mexico reversing the trend
An example of attempts at reversing this trend can be seen in Southern California, which has taken successful action to modify its urban metabolism, pioneering efforts to reduce motor vehicle emissions. Mexico City — unlike most mega cities in less-developed countries — has also taken successful steps to partially address poor air quality. In the past two decades, the Mexican Government has introduced policies to improve air quality, including requiring pollution control devices like catalytic converters on newer vehicles, reducing sulphur levels in petrol and diesel fuel and relocating some large industrial emitters outside the Valley of Mexico. However, in other parts of the world for example the Mega cities in Asia and Africa urgently need to modify their urban metabolism in similar ways with a few fundamental changes such as getting rid of lead in their gasoline. In the developed world, we can institute emissions controls on diesel vehicles, which create hazardous fine particles, and we can also reduce pollution by using more rail-based mass transport or setting up specialized bus routes.”
The urban metabolism model can reveal how developed-world mega cities, such as Tokyo, New York and Los Angeles, have improved their air quality despite a rise in population. The study also assesses how developing-world mega cities are seriously grappling with the problem.

Adapted from materials provided by American Chemical Society.
American Chemical Society (2009, August 18). How Cities Mimic Life:
Mega cities Breathe, Consume Energy, Excrete Wastes And Pollute.

Recently, scientists have warned that Restoration-based Environmental Markets may not improve ecosystem health. While policymakers across of the globe are relying on environmental restoration projects to fuel emerging market-based environmental programmes, an article in the July 31 2009 edition of Science by two noted ecologists warns that these programs still lack the scientific certainty needed to ensure that restoration projects deliver the environmental improvements being marketed.
Markets identify the benefits humans derive from ecosystems, called ecosystem services, and associate them with economic values which can be bought, sold or traded. The scientists, Dr. Margaret Palmer and Dr. Solange Filoso of the University of Maryland Centre for Environmental Science Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, raise concerns that there is insufficient scientific understanding of the restoration process, namely, how to alter a landscape or coastal habitat to achieve the environmental benefits that are marketed. “Both locally and nationally, policymakers are considering market-based environmental restoration programs where the science does not yet conclusively show that environment health will improve once the ‘restoration’ is completed,” said Dr. Palmer. “These programs may very well make economic sense, but the jury is still out whether or not the local environment will ultimately benefit.” At present, the demand in ecosystem service markets is driven by regulations that require those who harm the environment to mitigate or provide offsets for their environmental impacts. But in the regions throughout the world, including the Chesapeake Bay, many people hope that voluntary markets will expand outside of a regulatory context and result in a net gain of ecosystem services rather than just offsets for lost ecosystem services.
Examples include markets for flood protection created by restoring floodplains or wetlands and markets for improving water quality by restoring streams or rivers.
In their paper, the scientists outline what should be done before markets expand further and state that there must be a recognition that restoration projects generally only restore a subset of the services that natural ecosystem provide, complete a limited number of projects in which direct measurements are made of the response of biophysical processes to restoration actions, and identify easily measured ecosystem features that have been shown to reflect the biophysical processes that support the desired ecosystem service.
“There is an inherent danger of marketing ecosystem services through ecological restoration without properly verifying if the restoration actions actually lead to the delivery of services,” said Dr. Filoso. “If this happens, these markets may unintentionally cause an increase in environmental degradation.”

Reference:
Restoration of Ecosystem Services for Environmental Markets. Science, July
31st 2009. Adapted from materials provided by University of Maryland Centre for
Environmental Science.

Environmental Markets Association EMA
For more information on Environmental Markets please visit the web site of the Environmental Markets Association: http://www.environmentalmarkets.org/index.ww